In Search of a Style

The Issue of Cultural Identity and Graphic Design in Indonesia

Lucia C. Sumarijanto

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master Science (Communication Design) Pratt Insititute School of Art and Design, December 2003

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements
Foreword
Introduction
The Republic of Indonesia
History of Graphic Design in Indonesia
A Journey to the Past
A Journey to the Present
Conclusion
Solution
Sketches
Bibiliography

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Acknowledgements

It took me 10,053 miles to realize the beauty of my own country’s cultural heritages. During 24 years of my life in Indonesia, I never really paid any attention to my culture, until I moved to New York City, all of a sudden my vision brightened up and I really saw how fascinating my cultural heritage is. This thesis is dedicated for my nation and its people. The research is formed in a traveling journal format. It is a reflection of my own journey in getting to know my own country. However, it is impossible to complete this thesis without the support from God and special people in my life. Therefore, I would like to thank Him and my family, especially my Mom and Dad who have always been here with me through their love, thoughts and prayers, without them I would never be able to complete this thesis and to achieve another major milestone in my life. I also would like to express my gratitude to my professors and friends from The Visual Communication Design of Bandung Institute of Technology, especially Prijanto S., A.D. Pirous, Hafiz and Henricus Kusbiantoro. I also would like to thank Hanny Kardinata for sharing his passion in Indonesian graphic design history, tante Maria for helping me in obtain the books, all my best friends in sembilan_lima@yahoogroups.com, especially Lambok Elvandri Martin for his generous and committed supports, and Yuni Jie for her passion and inspiration in Indonesian design. Big thanks also for my thesis advisor Graham Hanson for his guidance, and all my friends at Pratt especially Johnathan Ward, Isabella Roxas, Kimberly Wilkinson and all my classmates in thesis class who have helped me so much through the process. And last but not least… my dear Laurent, my thankfulness will never be enough for your unconditional love and support that you have given to me throughout this journey.

Lucia C. Sumarijanto

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Foreword

Today, living in Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia, we are always surrounded by the invasion of imported culture. We are exposed easily to western icons, which are found in every corner of the metropolitan city, from teenagers wearing Nike t-shirts and Puma sneakers to those wandering at the malls packed with western fast food chains such as McDonalds or Starbucks. When one overhears a conversation, it is likely that the topics would be about who is hot on MTV, the top box office of Hollywood movies, or fashion trends worn by American or European celebrities, all of this while enjoying their Big Macs with chilly sauce and large cups of Pepsi.

This mimicking of western lifestyle goes on and on. When the night falls, yuppies from every part of the city hang around at cafes or bars that have New York Citystyle interiors, sipping Budweiser beers or French wines, talking about traveling abroad to shop for the latest trend in fashion while watching bands play top 40 American music. The act would likely be continued until dawn with some after parties at the techno-dance clubs, which have been promoted weeks earlier using British-design style flyers.

Using the description above, and to understand the relation to my thesis topic, I found that it is not easy to recognize the real Indonesian characteristic in people’s lifestyles and the designs that have been produced by Indonesian designers. Even if you are a graphic designer who has been living in Indonesia since birth, it is more difficult to identify with the Indonesian flavor in your personal design style because of the westernized environment.

It concerns me, as an Indonesian graphic designer, that the public is very satisfied and enjoys the non-Indonesian culture invasion, and that it has made the local visual identity disappear. When I was working in a Jakarta-based graphic design company, we had a client in the retail business. This client was the oldest, most well known, and most reputable department store in Indonesia. Basically, the design brief given to us was to make a new brand identity and marketing campaigns for one of its suppliers, which was a locally-based clothing line company from Bandung, a city in West Java. We were told by the marketing manager of this department store to design something that would make people perceive that this new brand was made and imported from abroad (western countries). In the end, it turned out that the identity and the whole campaign looked very westernized, using an English word for its brand name, a Caucasian-looking girl for the talent, and a clean, simple Swiss style of design for the layout. This is an example of something that happens many times and in almost every case we did.

From this example, one can draw an early conclusion that the mentality and the past experience of being an object of colonialism still lives in the minds of the Indonesian people. Indonesia was a Dutch colony once. 350 years of occupation has made the Dutch or Western culture embedded in many aspects of Indonesian’s lives. The embracement of Western culture was nurtured intensively in people’s mind. Unconsciously the natives were given the perception that Dutch/Western people and their way of living are better compared to their own. As a result, it has been very difficult for Indonesian people to gain self-confidence in their minds, even decades after the nation gained its independence. In the end, I found that this reality has contributed
a great deal to design development in Indonesia.

But again, why do such things happen? Is it only because of the ‘Dutch Factor?’ Or is it something else? As designers, who are also a part of the society, we have some responsibilities not only to satisfy our client/public’s mind but also to educate the public through our expertise and visual language. This thesis can give me a chance to take part in educating people about cultural identity.

For many years, Indonesia has been known for its rich, beautiful, and unique art and design. One example is its ornamental design. So far the use of it has occured only on certain objects, ancient ones. Only a few designers (mostly in fashion and architecture) have tried to elevate and incorporate this heritage with modern elements, while graphic designers have done almost nothing. There are thousands of styles. Every ethnicity has its own distinctive style like the famous Javanese Batik, Kalimantan’s beads, or Sumatra’s embroideries. The beauty of this visual language often fascinates western people. Some of them even have published books on the subject including the philosophy behind each visual substance of those amazing designs. In fact, these western authors are the ones who dominate book writing on Indonesian art and designs. Only a few of Indonesian writers (or designers) have interest in writing and publishing such topics.

The lack of information about Indonesia’s own heritage in art and design also contributes a lot to the building of the local designer’s insight to know their cultural roots better. Young generations of designers have especially been exposed consistently to western visual icons. In the Bandung Institute of Technology, the oldest design school in Indonesia and the first institution offering a major in communication design, students have very limited courses on this subject. They learn only the history of the Indonesian visual language during the pre-Dutch colonial era. There are no subjects or books that talk about the nation’s graphic design history and its important people who have influences in the profession. In short, students do not get enough information about their own history of design.

One of the many aims of this thesis is to help Indonesian graphic design find its own style. This ‘new style’ will become a part of the Indonesian visual identity which has been lost in its time of journey so far. There are some methods that I would like to propose here. One of them is to make a reappearance of the real Indonesian characteristics in visual style, which has been forgotten by the young generation, on some modern design applications.

A Chinese proverb says “a journey of thousands miles is started with a single
step.” This thesis attempts to be the small step that will need the support and be continuation in a consistent manner by other Indonesian designers to bring the Indonesian graphic design to a better developed stage.

“There’s got to be a way for Indonesian graphic design to find its OWN STYLE!!!”

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Introduction

In the Fall 2001 I attended my first class at Pratt, Typography. In her opening speech, Professor Olga de la Roza shared her thoughts on how she became inspired by many of the works produced by her international students. She said that it has always been a great fortune to learn the characters of their works. They are very different, from one to another, as a result of their variety of backgrounds and cultures. Korean students have excellent hand skills when doing their work. Japanese students like to play with the cleanliness of their layouts. Indian students like to use bright colors. And American students are very expressive in their conceptual thinking.

It was at that moment that her speech made me think hard about the character of my design as an Indonesian graphic designer. In reviewing the designs that I have produced in my life, I find it difficult to see in them any characteristics that reflect the local flavor of Indonesian designs – i.e the distinctive style of the intuitive batik cloth patterns, or the bright, vivid colors of Balinese ornamentation. Instead, my design style is very calculated —not intuitive, with many geometrical shapes, very clean and simple with no ornamentation attached, and similar in style to designs that have been produced in the western countries. In short, I see that my style looks very un-Indonesian. And this is characteristic of designs that appear in Indonesia today.

Crossit Poster for VisCom

“The look of graphic designs in Indonesia today does not have any distinctive characteristic which differentiates it from other design styles” Corollary to this hypothesis is the question - what exactly is the character of Indonesian graphic design style? Are there any features in it that make it unique and distinguished from works outside its shores, say Japanese, or Dutch design?

The answer to these questions is crucial to put the Indonesian graphic design in a better place towards the international world. With today’s globalization, when the borders between different countries have begun to blur, it becomes very necessary to have an identity. Preserving the uniqueness of a nation’s visual character is one way to identify the nation. Each country in the world is unique, and this unique identity is founded in design style and can help the nation to compete in a very tight global competition.

The obscurity of Indonesian graphic design style seems related to many conditions, each of which form Indonesia as a nation. There are two major factors that have great influence in determining the development of Indonesian visual style.

First is the geographic location of Indonesia. The position of the country, which lies between the Asian and Australian continents, provides reliable northeasterly winds between November and March, and southwesterly ones between June and September. The monsoon pattern enabled sailors to reach China or India in one monsoon and return on the other. This situation has made Indonesia a melting pot, one of the most important trading places in the Eastern part of the world. Thousands of years ago, merchants from China, India and Arabia came to this, the world’s largest archipelago to trade spices. In doing so, they had also inadvertently spread their cultural differences into the lives of native Indonesians. After the merchants from the Far East, the Portuguese came in 1509 followed by the British in 1579, then the Dutch in 1596. The latter occupied the country for 350 years, right before the Japanese who ruled the nation for 3 years from 1942 – 1945.

The second factor is the demographic composition of Indonesia. There are approximately 300 ethnic groups founded in Indonesia. Each group is different from one another. They live sparsely in many different islands from West (Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan) to East (Sulawesi, Maluku, Irian Jaya). Each has its own language, culture, and way of expressing themselves. This is also reflected in their visual language.

In order to make this thesis more focused and accurate, it is necessary to limit the area covered by the research. Java Island will be the main focus of attention in determining the Indonesian graphic design style and its history. It is chosen not only because approximately 62% (130,000,000) of the Indonesian population live on this island, or because the capital city – Jakarta is located there, but also its ethnic composition is very diverse. For many years, millions of immigrants from other islands throughout the country have come to Java because of the islands’ fertility. Java is very important also because it is the center of the Indonesian economy today.

A close inspection of the development of graphic design style in the western world shows that style is created by many reasons. Victorian style appeared as a way to symbolize the wealthy people who lived in that era, Expresionism style arose during the German revolution to express that designers could actually contribute to the shaping of a new society, Bauhaus style was a product of a school that changed the method and quality of art education by combining the fine and applied arts, Heroic Realism style emerged as a devise for Stalin to communicate the new doctrine called Socialist Realism to the then illiterate Russian people, Psychedelic style was an honest reflection of the 1960s American youth culture, and Digital – Rave has surfaced among the ravers as the computer era’s style. In short, the reasons could be thousands, and the purpose could be millions in creating a style.

But when one makes a list of every design styles in the world, included its background and purpose, there is one single thread, which relates them. Style has always been created by one human for another as part of their society. “Style is the signal of a civilization. It is impossible for man to produce objects without reflecting the society of which he is a part and the moment in history when the product concept developed in his mind… In this sense everything produced by man has style” – Sir Micha Black (The Tiffany/Wharton Lectures, 1975)

Based on that thinking, for the proposed solution of this thesis in creating a new Indonesian graphic design style, I feel that it becomes natural to create a style, that is derived and developed by the general characters of Indonesian people. The new style will be reflected in a form which Indonesian people will easily understand and be familiar with. They can relate themselves to the visual language, which will be used in the design solution. And most important of all, the uniqueness of the Indonesian character found in the new design will become its new identity, which will distinguish the Indonesian graphic design style from any other style existing in the world today.

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The Republic of Indonesia: the Country and its People

Style, in its most general sense, is a specific or characteristic manner of expression, design, construction, or execution. As it relates to graphic design, style suggests the dominant visual aesthetic of a particular time and place. In this chapter, a brief description of the place where style takes location will be explained. Followed will be a summary of information of the people who live there.

Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world extending some 2,000 kilometers from North to South and more than 5,000 kilometers from East to West. The archipelago stretches over more than one-tenth of the Equator between Southeast Asia and Australia. The largest islands are the Kalimantan provinces or Borneo, Sumatra, Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), Sulawesi and Java, where the capital city of Jakarta is located.

Indonesia’s position between the Asian and Australian continents provides reliable northeasterly winds between November and March, and southwesterly ones between June and September. Thousands of years ago, the monsoon pattern enabled sailors to reach China or India in one monsoon and return on the other.

The Geographical make-up consists of 18,108 islands with a total land area of 1.91 million square kilometers connected by six seas covering more than 3 million square kilometers.

About 6,000 islands are inhabited with Java accounting for more than half the nation’s population. Satellite imaging analysis has also shown that Indonesia has a coastline of 108,920 kilometers (68,075 miles) and a total of 20,731 square kilometers (82,924 miles) of reefs.

Nearly 60 percent of Indonesia’s land is forested, and a significant portion ismountainous and volcanic. Some mountains on Sumatra and Papua (Irian Jaya) exceed 3,000 meters in height. Mt. Merapi, near Yogyakarta, is regarded as the most volatile of Indonesia’s 500 volcanoes, 129 of which are still active. Java alone has 112 volcanoes. Centuries of volcanic activity has led to a high degree of soil fertility on Java and Bali, which accounts in part for the high concentration of agriculture and people on these two islands.

There are several important cities in Java. They are Jakarta, with a population of over 9.5 million, Surabaya, Bandung, Semarang, Yogyakarta, and Surakarta (Solo). Other major cities outside Java are Medan, Padang, Palembang, Bandar Lampung in Sumatra, Banjarmasin in Kalimantan, Ujung Pandang, and Manado in Sulawesi.

Indonesian climate is mostly equatorial. Temperatures range between 16º- 35º Celsius (61º-91º Fahrenheit) with humidity ranging from 60% - 90%. There are two seasons, the rainy monsoon season which usually lasts from November through May, followed by the dry season which usually lasts from June through October. Rainfall varies throughout Indonesia, averaging 706 mm (28 inches) yearly.

Indonesia’s 201 million people make it the world’s fourth-most populated nation. The island of Java is one of the most densely populated areas in the world, with more than 130 million people living in an area the size of New York State. Together with the smaller adjoining islands of Madura and Bali, Java accounts for just over 7% of the Indonesia land area, but these islands are populated by some 119 million inhabitants which comprises 59.5% of the total Indonesian population. The combined populations of the special districts of Jakarta and Yogyakarta and the provinces of West, Central and East Java totaled 120 million people in 1999. The population of the special district of Jakarta was 9.5 million in 1999.

By contrast, Papua (formerly Irian Jaya) represents 22% of the total land mass, yet has only 1% of the population. The total population of the island of Sulawesi was over 14.5 million in 1999. So vast areas of Indonesia have very low population levels … while the majority of the people live on the island of Java and Bali. The Indonesian population can be roughly divided into two groups. In the west of the country, the people are mostly Malay, while the people of the east are Papuan. However, the ethnic structure is rather diverse, with several traditional tribes still living on the islands of Borneo and Irian Jaya. The Chinese form a large ethnic minority (2 to 3 million).

Culturally, Indonesia appears extremely diverse. Each community has its own culture and follows its own adat (customary law). Some 250 different languages are spoken and over 300 distinctive ethnic groups have been recognized. Yet there are also remarkable similarities in the people’s characters between cultures across the Archipelago which are preserved until today:
- A strong relationship between Indonesians and nature.
- Belief in animism and dynamism which applies not only in the rural areas but also in the urban societies.
- A great tolerance among each other.

Bahasa Indonesia is the official language of the nation. The written and spoken form is based on the Malay trade dialect which was used throughout the region in the past. Bahasa Indonesia is a strong unifying factor in a country where more than 300 distinct regional languages are still spoken. It started to be used officially in 1928 during the National Youth Pledge Conference in Jakarta. More formal Bahasa Indonesia is expected to be used in high level business meetings. Newspapers and television news also use formal Bahasa Indonesia.

English is the most widely spoken foreign language. It may be spoken in international and high level business contexts in large cities such as Jakarta. One may be able to converse in English with some Indonesians in Jakarta. In rural areas, it may be difficult to find people who speak English, unless the locale is a widely visited tourist destination.

Dutch may be understood by older Indonesians, who may have attended Dutch schools during the occupation.

About 88% of the population is Muslim. Roughly 10% is Christian (Protestant and Roman Catholic) and approximately 2% is Hindu and Buddhist. All five of these religions are formally recognized in Indonesia and have official national holidays commemorating events of importance to their followers. While the country is predominantly Muslim, the government is secular and therefore is not based on a -single religion.

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History of Graphic Design in Indonesia

In Steven Heller’s book entitled Graphic Design History, he wrote “”…it is necessary for designers to have the grounding provided by historical knowledge to avoid reinvention, and plagiarism.”” Based on that synopsis, the history writing part in this thesis becomes very important to analyze the graphic design style which exists today in Indonesia. Some obstacles occurred during the investigation, for instance the non-existence of books about Indonesian graphic design and its history, and the inadequate number of Indonesian graphic designers who have no interest in doing research on such topics. Before the 1980s, not many people in Indonesia knew the term ‘graphic design.’ Instead, they were more familiar with ‘advertising art.’ It was the Dutch who introduced it in the archipelago. The following annotation will explain a brief history of the art of printing, advertising and graphic design according to its time line.

The art of printing was introduced into the archipelago in the 1600s. The two factors that brought about the establishment of the printing press under Dutch rule were:

• To multiply the legal regulations contained in official proclamations on a large scale by printing them, since this saved both time and money.

• The Dutch Reformed Church, to pursue its missionary work among the natives, had urgent need of books and tracts for educational work, while one of its chief aims was a vernacular translation of the Holy Scriptures.

The deployment of advertising to promote was also used by merchants to bolster up their sales. In 1825, advertisements of traditional medicines were found in the pages of Tjabaja Siang, a local newspaper in Minahasa. Tjabaja Siang was the first publisher owned by the native people. Its advertisements
were also published in some media in The Netherlands.

First Brochures
The growth of advertising during the Dutch Indies period had a lot to do with the growth of the economy in the region. In 1870, many Dutch investors came to invest their money in plantation and mine industries. The situation forced them to form a research foundation in order to extend and accumulate their capital. Suikersyndicaat, a sugar association, was one of them. They were the first organization that made promotional brochures to attract prospective investors. Another organization was the Javaasche Bank which also used printed materials as the media of promotion. The brochures and booklets were mostly printed by G.C.T. van Dorp & Co, which was located in Jakarta, Semarang and Surabaya.

First Product Advertisements and Advertising Agencies
The entrance of private investors in the plantation industry also started the
growth of other new products. The nonelectrical lamp was one of the modern technologies at that time. The first printed ad for such products appeared in a
newspaper called Reclame en Reproductie. It was an ad for Optimus Lamp made
by an advertising company, which was translated in three different languages; Indonesian, Arabic, and Chinese.

The involvement of advertising agencies in the creation of ads during that time
was also an indication that they already had big influences in trades and promotions in the Dutch Indies. This reflected the fact that the Dutch Indies had made an adaptation to the marketing methods of Europe. The effect of it was similar; to force a tight competition between merchants. The situation was confirmed in a detergent ad, Ofi, in Reclame en Reproduktie. The ad displayed not only utilized text but also the use of attractive illustrations. It contained a persuasive message promising that the detergent was affordable and the best.

The early 20th century was also an era when advertising agencies emerged. These agencies were categorized in three groups of sizes (large, medium, and small) and ownership. The Dutch people owned mostly the large ones. N.V Algemeen Reclame Bureau Excelsior made some ads for Wilmelmina Hotel, Homann Hotel and Peugeot Motor, while the Chinese and natives owned the medium and smaller agencies such as N.V. Tjong Hok Long, Liem Kim Hok, Biro Lauw Tjin, Bureau voor Indische Agenture & Reclames and Algemeen Advertentie.

N.V. Tjong Hok Long was the first ad agency founded in 1901 by the Chinese. In the beginning they created many ads for comic books which were also printed by the agency. Later, they created ads for other products such as batiks, soaps, cigarettes, and medicines. The ads they produced were mostly handwritten and very plain.

In 1905, Aneta, a news agency was founded. The agency had its own advertising department and was very advanced not only in facilities but also in the manpower that came from Europe. Some of its creative people were F. Van Bemmel, Is. Van Mens and Cor van Deutekom who did advertisements for big clients such as Bataafche Petroleum in Surabaya, General Motors and Koninklijke Pakevaart Maatschappij in Batavia.

Pre-Japanese Occupation
The world economic depression in 1929-1930 had a big influence on the advertising industry in the Dutch Indies. Many foreign companies had to stop their campaigns and big agencies lost a lot of money. But many smaller agencies still survived because most of their clients came from small industries like cigarettes, soaps and powders.

The situation got better in the years 1930-1942. Industries were back in shape. Many products were imported from Europe and US like Ford cars, Philips radios, and several other brands from watches, milk to health products. Many advertising agencies were keen again. Some of them even started to apply a ‘new method’ to their ads which is now called product/brand positioning. Success Advertising, for example, positioned its client, Philips, as a brand for economical products. And so was the Listerine ad, which positioned itself as the toothpaste to cure any dental problems. The ad used a Caucasian male model, smiling widely, showing his healthy, clean, white teeth.

Until 1940, manufactured products dominated the Dutch Indies market. Most of them were everyday products or home appliances imported from Europe, Japan and US.

Sales Promotional Advertisements
Based on some products produced by European, Chinese or natives, it was shown, that there had been some attempts to make product segmentations according to the target audiences. This was shown in the type of people appeared in each advertisement. For example Fuchs & Rens Ltd which imported Chrysler, employed Success Advertising to make its ad. The agency knew very well that the Europeans who were living in the Dutch Indies were the target market for this automotive product. And they had already known Chrysler’s reputation. As a result, the ad was very efficient in communicating the message. The copy was ‘Chrysler, the best automotive for a long trip’ along
with an image of the product.

Other ads for European imported products such as watches and radios also appeared very simple and clean. They mostly used illustrations to attract the
audience. For example a Tawiza watch ad showed two kinds of watches, round and square, complete with the hours, minutes and seconds. Another ad with similar looks was an ad for a Philips radio showing an illustration of the radio box.

The simplicity of Chrysler, Tawiza and Philips ads were far different than other European products made for the natives like Bier Itam Serimpi, a beer product produced by Archipel Brouwerij in Jakarta. European people in the Dutch Indies were the only ones who basically consumed this product. But starting from the early 20th century, it was also enjoyed by the natives. The ad for this beer was very long and descriptive using an illustration of twelve serimpi female dancers.

The introduction of new methods and techniques in Indonesian advertising had made many smaller-scale agencies grow bigger. Most of them acquired new knowledge that was brought from European countries who were more advanced in the field.

Japanese Occupation
In March 1942, the Japanese arrived in the Dutch Indies and took over the whole archipelago. This invasion had frozen the business and economic activities in the region which had been basically managed by the Dutch Indies Government. Instead of economy development, the Japanese policy concentrated more on building facilities for defense. Not only physically but also
mentally. Commercial ads were shifted into politic propaganda to support the regime. Such ads appeared in daily newspapers Asia Raya and Djawa Shimbun, saying that Japan is the older brother of Indonesia and will protect all of Asia from western colonialism. These ads were released by the Japanese Department of Communication in Indonesia.

When the Japanese came and conquered the Dutch, many natives perceived it as the moment to gain back their dignity as Asian people. The Japanese, who called itself ‘older brother’ were believed as heroes for the Indonesians and was very well accepted by the people. The Japanese, who were also advanced in art and culture, were expected to help the local artists develop Indonesian art.

In April 1942, at the request from Lt. General Imamura, Indonesian and Japanese artists were gathered to introduce themselves. A year later, ‘Keimin Bunka Shidoso’, an art center was founded in Jakarta by the Japanese government. The objective of this organization was to have a place to teach local artists and to develop Indonesian art.

Behind it all, the Japanese had its own agenda. They actually needed human resources, which were artists, for making their propaganda materials such as posters and billboards. The instructors came from Japan, and they taught the local artists the technique of drawing, coloring and layout. But the themes were always about the greatness of the Japanese kingdom, and how it could lead Indonesian people to a better life.

One of the Japanese instructors was Saseo Ono (1906-1954). Ono, who was a
painter, came to Indonesia as a soldier. He arrived in Banten, West Java in March, 1942.

During his stay, Ono painted many walls on people’s houses he found in Banten. The themes of his paintings were of course Japanese propaganda with slogans saying ‘Asia for Asia’, ‘Nippon and Indonesia are best friends’, and ‘Asia in unity’. In 1944 a book containing of his sketches was published by Djawa Shimbun newspaper.

When Keimin Bunka Shidoso was founded in Jakarta, Ono became one of the figures who made the concept and mission of the Japanese propaganda poster organization’s activities. His thinking and art techniques had influenced and opened the way of thinking in Indonesian painters and artists at that time, like Affandi, S. Sudjojono, Henk Ngatung, Otto Djaya, Dullah, and Hendra Gunawan.

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